The Changing Role of School Boards

一、         摘要

美國學校近年來的教育改革包含學校選擇權、學校本位管理、教師效能、學生成就評量，以及學校委員會……等等。

二、         相關資料：美國學校委員會

    美國教育屬地方分權歷史相當之久，公立學校委員會在學校經營上和學區資源的分配，佔有極為重要的地位。所謂的學區幅員相當於台北的行政區，每一個學區都有高中、初中和若干所小學，設有獨立的學區教育委員會和教育局長（Superintendent）來管理。當孩子入學之時，學區委員會都會透過學校，發給家長和學生有關學生權利和責任規定，學校也會發家長手冊，介紹家長如何參與學校事務，至於各領域課程綱要，都統籌由學區教育委員會提供。

    以一般公立學校的校董會為例，分州政府的 Board of Education 和 Local School Board 兩

種。茲分述如下： 

(一) Board of Education：由政府指派。類似國內中央和各縣市的教育審議委員會。 

(二) 地方董事會Local Board ：地方董事會有的稱為學區教育委員會或校董會（School Board），委員是由學區中的居民選舉產生的，由教育委員會授權，審核學區內各中小學的人事、經費一切事務。

    各州學區教育委員會，約略大同小異，各行政區劃分若干學區，設學區教育委員會(School Board)，掌管該學區所有中小學事務。學區內中小學，無論經費或人事及校園整理修繕等工作都是學區統籌分配。其地方性學區委員會的運作大致如下： 

•  學區人事，會計，教育資源，統籌運用，老師會有跨學校上課情形。行政編制少，校園整理工作外包。 

•  學區委員會委員，由社區居民就社區人士推選出來，屬無給職。每月定期開會。

•  聘請和評鑑學督(Superintendent 相當學區教育局長)

•  處理學區資源分配和重要事件。

•  參考校長意見，辦理教師遷調，聘請，終止聘約事宜。 

•  提供學區各校各年級課程綱要。

•  提供學區教師進修或教學研討會計劃。 

     至於學區內的一切教育資源分配和管理以及教育政策，則由教育委員會授權給學督(Superintendent)帶領一批職員來執行。學區委員會則負責評鑑和督導。由於學區的範圍不大，學區委員會和學督比較能夠深入了解學區內各校的狀況和需求，學區內無論人力、物力資源都可統籌運用和精確的分配，因此，可以做到經費充分運用和人員的精簡

HOW IS INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP DISTRIBUTED?

1980年代的教學領導是以校長為中心，往往伴隨著英雄人物一手維持學校發展軌道的圖像。最近的許多政策性文件繼續將校長推向前方和中心，例如，Gene Bottoms and Kathy O'Neill (2001)研究校長的主要特點時指出，校長就好像「學習長」一樣，承擔企業的最終成敗責任。然而，越來越多的研究人員說，教學領導是互補性的責任，分布於學校社區、校長、教育局長、教師和決策者。

Elmore認為，改革中有五種關鍵的成員：(1)政策制定者，其職責是整合不同的政治利益成為一個可行的體制；(2)研究人員和方案開發人員，其職責是確定和建立成功的策略和結構；(3)教育局（廳）長與其辦公室職員，其職責是制定一致性的學區目標和支持系統；(4)校長，其職責是制定和實施，充分聚焦的學校改善計畫；(5)教師，其職責是將課程轉化成對學生有意義學習經驗。Elmore說，每個角色都引導出不同類型的專業知識，領導者必須尊重和培養。

分布式領導並不意味著只是簡單的分工，參與者只扮演一個與他人截然不同的角色。相反的，他們的成果相互依存和常常跨越邊界的(Spillane and colleagues)。例如，校長可以安排專業發展的機會，但教師必須實際在教室裡運用新的理念。

Seven Essentials for Project-Based Learning

1. A Need to Know

Imagine that on the first day of the infectious disease unit, Ms. McIntyre showed a video depicting a beautiful beach, which ended with a shot of a sign reading, "Beach Closed: Contaminated Water." Suppose watching this video led to a lively (and sometimes disgusting) discussion in which students shared their experiences with suspicious water quality, discussed times when beaches had been closed and why, and talked about how much pollution bothered them. The teacher could then introduce the project by telling students that they would be learning more about ocean pollution and proposing actions to combat it.

試想有一天負責傳染性疾病單位的 McIntyre女士，播放一個描繪美麗的海灘視頻，片尾以一個立牌告示上面寫著射擊—「海濱休息日：受污染的水」。請設享於觀看這部影片後引起了生動（有時噁心）的討論，讓學生分享他們關於可疑水質經驗，並討論海灘關閉的問題及原因，以及污染產生的影響。老師可以再引進專題討論，使學生更加了解海洋污染和反對恐怖主義。

Teachers can powerfully activate students' need to know content by launching a project with an "entry event" that engages interest and initiates questioning. An entry event can be almost anything: a video, a lively discussion, a guest speaker, a field trip, or a piece of mock correspondence that sets up a scenario. In contrast, announcing a project by distributing a packet of papers is likely to turn students off; it looks like a prelude to busywork.

教師可藉由「引入事件」，結合學生興趣並引發問題討論，積極促發學生學習應有的知識。一個引入的事件，可以是任何東西：一個視頻、討論會、演講，實地考察，或一塊模擬通信中設置一個場景。相反的，僅透過一堆文件進行事件討論，很有可能會關閉學生的學習興趣。

Many students find schoolwork meaningless because they don't perceive a need to know what they're being taught. They are unmotivated by a teacher's suggestion that they should learn something because they'll need it later in life, for the next course, or simply because "it's going to be on the test." With a compelling student project, the reason for learning relevant material becomes clear: I need to know this to meet the challenge I've accepted.

很多學生覺得學業毫無意義，因為他們不認為他們有學習的必要。學生無法從心接受老師的學習建議，建議他們應該學習的東西，因為他們會在未來的生活需要，或為了考試。從一個令人信服的研究顯示，學生於明暸將所面對的挑戰時，將進行相關學習。

2. A Driving Question

After the discussion about beach pollution, Ms. McIntyre led students in brainstorming possible solutions, such as enacting laws, designing better waste-treatment systems, and raising public awareness about the need to reduce contaminants. Students created a driving question to focus their efforts, focusing on a specific local area: How can we reduce the number of days Foster's Beach is closed because of poor water quality?

帶動引領問題情境

經討論後的泳灘污染，麥金太爾女士帶領學生腦力激盪可能的解決方案，如制定法律，設計出更好的廢物處理系統，並提高公眾意識的必要性，以減少污染物。學生創造了一個問題集中他們的努力，專注於一個特定的區域：怎樣才能減少福斯特海灘，因為水質不好而封閉的天數的

A good driving question captures the heart of the project in clear, compelling language, which gives students a sense of purpose and challenge. The question should be provocative, open-ended, complex, and linked to the core of what you want students to learn. It could be abstract (When is war justified?); concrete (Is our water safe to drink?); or focused on solving a problem (How can we improve this website so that more young people will use it?).

良好的問題引領抓住了案子的中心點，而明確的令人信服的語言引領，這給學生挑戰案件的目的和意義。這個問題應該是挑釁性的，開放式的，複雜的，並鏈接到你想讓學生學習的核心東西。它可以是抽象的（如果是戰爭正當的嗎？），具體的（是我們的水可以直接飲用？），或著眼於解決問題（如何才能改善這個網站，讓更多的年輕人將使用它？）。

A project without a driving question is like an essay without a thesis. Without a thesis statement, a reader might be able to pick out the main point a writer is trying to make; but with a thesis statement, the main point is unmistakable. Without a driving question, students may not understand why they are undertaking a project. They know that the series of assigned activities has some connection with a time period, a place, or a concept. But if you asked, "What is the point of all these activities?" they might only be able to offer, "Because we're making a poster."

一個沒有導入問題的專案，就像一篇沒有標題的文章。沒有標題的文章，讀者也許能挑出作家試圖指出的論點，但是如果有論點標題，文章的中心思想是不會被讀者誤判的。如果沒有問題的引入，學生們可能不明白為什麼他們正在進行的項目。他們或許知道該系列活動有一定的分配與一時間，一個地方或一個概念。但如果你問：“這些活動的中心目的為何？” 他們可能只說“因為我們是在做一個海報。”

How to Build A Better High School

The measure is controversial, but students who take AP exams--even if they don't do well--are better prepared than those who don't.

對於學生參加AP考試這樣的這項措施是有爭議的，即使參加AP考試的學生他們做不好是也比那些沒有參加的學生做了更好的準備。

Morgan Wilbanks was in for a series of shocks when he transferred to the Jefferson County International Baccalaureate (IB) School in Alabama at the beginning of his sophomore year.

Morgan Wilbanks轉學至位於阿拉巴馬州傑弗遜郡國際文憑學校，展開他第二年的生涯時，遭遇到一系列的震撼。

The little-known school near Birmingham, which tops NEWSWEEK's list of America's Best High Schools, is on the leading edge of a growing movement to make secondary education much more rigorous.

這所位於伯明翰附近鮮為人知的學校，是名列新聞周刊美國最佳高中的名單之一，其在中等教育的改革中是位居領先的地位。

Wilbanks, then 16, found himself taking tough courses right from the start.

Wilbanks（16歲），他發現自己從選課的開始就開始體驗艱難的課程。

In his Advanced Placement (AP) European-history class, teacher Jeffrey Clayton gave startled students this initial assignment: memorize the map of Europe and be able to draw every country, along with 10 capitals, 10 rivers and 10 bodies of water.

在他的進階先修（AP）歐洲歷史課上，Jeffrey Clayton老師一開始的課程安排，就讓學生嚇了一跳：記住歐洲地圖，並能描繪每一個國家，還要包含10個首都，10條河流和10條河流的支流

And that was just a warm-up. 這只是暖身而已。

Clayton and other teachers told Wilbanks that he would be tackling nearly a dozen similarly demanding courses before he received his diploma.

Clayton和其他老師告訴Wilbanks，在他得到文憑之前，將近十多樣課程都有類似的要求。

A few of the school's 325 students fled, preferring a less strenuous life at a regular public school.

學校325位學生中的一些人選擇逃離，寧願到不須那麼勤奮學習的普通公立學校。

But Wilbanks, looking back this month a few weeks before graduation, says it was a "great experience" that prepared him well for the University of Alabama--where he'll major in chemistry and aim for medical school.

但是Wilbanks回顧離畢業只有幾星期的這個月，他說：「這是一段偉大的經驗。」為了到阿拉巴馬大學醫學院主修化學，他已經做好準備。

Parents and even some educators might cringe at the idea of turning adolescence into a forced march toward college.

家長和甚至一些教育工作者可能會擔心，學生的青春期被迫變成只為上大學而努力。

What about time --for fun, football games and memories of life beyond test scores?

時間是什麼呢？找尋樂趣，足球比賽和記憶測試成績以外的生活？

But even the most relaxed among them agree that something needs to be done to reform the American public high school, a 184-year-old institution that has been as resistant to change as a teenager ordered to clean his room.

但即使是最寬鬆的高中也同意，為改革美國的公立高中需要做一些事情了，一個184歲的機構就像一個青少年被命令清理房間一樣拒絕改變。

U.S. high schools generally score low in international comparisons.

在國際的評比中，美國的高中普遍表現不理想。

Unlike elementary and middle schools, high schools haven't made significant gains in reading achievement and have been erratic in math.

在閱讀方面，高中不像小學和中學一樣有明顯的成效，同時，數學的表現也不穩定。

Almost a third of all students--and half of blacks and Hispanics--fail to graduate.

將近三分之一的學生（包含一半的黑人和西班牙裔）沒能從高中畢業。

This dismal performance has captured everyone's attention.

這樣令人沮喪的表現，已經引起所有人的注意。

"There is a growing consensus behind high-school reform," said U.S. Education Secretary Margaret Spellings. "Never before have so many groups--governors, business leaders, children's advocates--been so united on the need to act."

美國教育部長Margaret Spellings說：「愈來愈多人意識到高中教育需要改革，從來沒有這麼多團體，如政府、企業領導人、兒童的擁護者，需要如此團結的採取行動。」

Heads 'better leaders than MPs'

Head teachers are much more valued for their leadership skills than politicians and football managers, claims an opinion poll.

一項民意調查宣稱，校長的領導能力比政治家和足球隊經理更被看重。

A survey of how people rate professionals and public figures shows that head teachers are viewed as among the best leaders.

一項有關於公眾如何評價專業和公共形象的調查顯示，校長被視為最佳的領導人之一。

It shows heads have risen in status, compared to previous polls from the National College for School Leadership.

比較先前NCSL的調查，校長的地位有提升了。

Head teachers were the second most "respected" professionals after doctors.

在最受尊敬專業人士中，校長的地位僅次於醫生。

The survey, carried out by Mori, says that more than half of the public believe that head teachers are "particularly good leaders" - better than army officers, the police and doctors.

這項調查由Mori先生進行，他說，超過一半的社會大眾相信，比起軍官、警察和醫生，校長是特別優秀的領導人。

And it shows that 43% of the public have "great respect" for heads - up by 4% compared with last year. Doctors command more respect - 59% - with police officers scoring the third highest, with 25%.

同時，這研究也指出，社會大眾「非常尊敬」的排行榜，第一名是醫生有59%；校長則有43%，比去年多了4%；而第三名則是警察25%。

There were also signs that this growing appreciation of heads was increasing confidence in the school system - with many more people believing that leadership in schools was getting better rather than declining.

校長在學校系統中不斷提升的自信心，也使社會大眾給予更多的讚賞。許多人相信學校領導的功能正在好轉。

Professionals such as heads and doctors were much higher rated for their leadership than better paid and higher profile figures - such as sports coaches, business directors and politicians.

對於專業人士領導能力的評價，校長和醫生高於其他如運動教練、企業主管和政治家等高收入和高知名度的人士。

Only 10% of people valued the leadership skills of MPs and sports managers scored 15%.

只有10%肯定國會議員的領導能力，運動教練則獲得15%的肯定。

But these were better than union officials, who only scored 7% and health service managers - 4% - and civil servants - 3% - who were the lowest ranked,

不過還高於工會官員的7%、衛生服務管理人4%和公務員的3%，

This high levels of support for heads and doctors - and lack of confidence in civil servants and health service managers - suggests that the public places much more trust in "front-line" staff.

校長和醫生得到高度的支持，以及對公務員和衛生服務管理者缺乏信心的現象，表示社會大眾對於「第一線」的工作人員較為信任。

The head of the National College for School Leadership, Heather Du Quesnay, said the survey reflected the growing awareness of the professionalism of head teachers.

NCSL的校長Heather Du Quesnay說：「這個調查反映了對於校長專業化的認識有所成長。」

"There is obviously an increasing awareness of the head teacher's complex and challenging leadership role and an appreciation of the huge impact that this has on our children's learning experiences and the success of our schools," she said.

她又說：「對校長工作複雜性和領導角色挑戰的認識，明顯地獲得提升，因為校長領導深深影響學童的學習經驗和學校的成功發展。」

Heads' college builds for future-

And the new building could be seen as a metaphor for the arrival of the knowledge economy, "re-cycling" land formerly used by the city's bicycle industry.

這幢新建築可以視為知識經濟到來的隱喻，它的基地從前是這城市的腳踏車工業所在地，現在「回收再利用」。

The college's chief executive, Heather du Quesnay, says that the quality of the building should reflect and reinforce the status of the profession.

學院的執行長Heather du Quesnay說，這建築物的品質，應該反映和增強它專業的地位。

And the government will be looking to the college to upgrade teachers' professionalism - training the next generation of heads and introducing professional qualifications for leadership.

政府希望學院著眼於提升教師專業化，訓練下一代的校長，引導他們成為合格的專業領導人。

Anyone who has been to a training centre will know the kind of set-up - name badges, coffee, feedback sessions, jargon, aspirational stuff about creativity and flexibility, and lots of management-speak on whiteboards.

任何人進入這個培訓中心將會知道體貼的設計，包含：姓名徽章、咖啡、行話、有關創造力和彈性化的理想物品，以及白板上有許多的管理規定。

But the difference is that this kind of centre has never been available to education before - and head teachers, looking after hundreds of lives and millions of pounds, have never had a focal point for their particular needs.

不同的是，從前的教育從未見過這樣的校長培訓中心。校長要照顧數以百計的人和花費數百萬英鎊，但卻從未聚焦到他們特別的需求。

Heather du Quesnay wants the college to help school leaders to create a more systematic and consistent approach to improving teaching and learning.

Heather du Quesnay希望領導學院幫助校長們創造更有系統性和一致性的方法改進教學和學習。

"There are too many inconsistencies, not just between different schools, but within schools. We've been bad at spreading knowledge, even between classrooms in the same school," she says.

她說：「我們一直用不好的方式傳播知識，不只是不同的學校，甚至同學校的不同班級間有太多的矛盾。」

Head teachers can be shown research-based ways of raising standards, which they can apply in their schools. "Less opinion and more fact," she says.

她又說：「少一些雜音（意見、輿論），多一些事實。引導校長們以研究為基礎的方式提高標準，他們可以應用於自己的學校。」

Help Wanted: Qualified Principals

WOMEN AND MINORITIES

婦女及少數族裔

Recruiting minority candidates was more often a problem than recruiting female candidates, survey respondents said.
受訪者表示招募少數族裔候選人往往是一個問題比招聘女性候選人困難的問題。

Seventeen percent of all respondents said increasing the number of women in management positions has been an issue in their district; 86 percent said that qualified females were considered for the vacancy they filled last year.
17%的受訪者表示，在他們的學區內，女性參與學校管理職位的議題已經逐漸增加，86%受訪者表示，具一定資歷的女性於去年已經填補了學區內的校長空缺。

Thirty-five percent of the superintendents indicated that increasing the number of minorities in management positions was an issue in their districts. Only thirty-six percent said that qualified minorities applied for last year's opening.
35%的督察表示，在其學區內增加少數族裔在學校管理職位已經成一個議題。 但也Only thirty-six percent said that qualified minorities applied for last year's opening.只有36%符合資格的少數民族裔申請去年的學校管理者空缺。

The great majority of principals are male and White (non-Hispanic), the study states. The percentage of minority principals in public schools, however, did increase from 13 to 16 percent between the school years 1987-88 and 1993-94, according to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). During the same time period, the percentage of female principals rose from 25 percent to 35 percent.
本研究中絕大多數校長是白種男性（非西班牙裔）。 然而根據全國教育統計中心（NCES），在一些公立學校，其他少數族裔的校長於1987-88和1993-94學年間，有些微增加13%至16%。 During the same time period, the percentage of female principals rose from 25 percent to 35 percent.在同一時期，女性校長的比例上升到25%至35%。

"Instead of waiting for individuals to self-select administration, educational leaders must be identified and groomed in a systematic way that facilitates the recruitment of potential leaders among women and minorities," concludes a 1992 report about a joint program of the New York City Board of Education and the Bank Street College Principals Institute.

“與其等待個別學校自行選擇校長，教育領導者必須有系統地確立並扶植具潛在領導人的女性和少數民族。